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<title>Anders Chydenius</title>

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</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Anders Chydenius</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Anders Chydenius</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">26 February 1729<br><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="Sotkamo" title="Sotkamo">Sotkamo</a>, <a href="Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> (now <a href="Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">1 February 1803<span style="display:none">(1803-02-01)</span> (aged 73)<br><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="Gamlakarleby" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamlakarleby">Gamlakarleby</a>, Sweden (now Kokkola, Finland)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Philosophical work</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a>, <a href="Age_of_Liberty" title="Age of Liberty">Age of Liberty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Main interests</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>, <a href="Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, <a href="Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable ideas</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a>, <a href="Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>, <a href="Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and <a href="Free_migration" title="Free migration">migration</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

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<p><b>Anders Chydenius</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">

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</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Finland Swedish:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="sv-Latn-FI-fonipa">[ˈandærs<span class="wrap"> </span>tɕyˈdeːniʉs]</span>; 26 February 1729 – 1 February 1803) was a <a href="Swedish-speaking_population_of_Finland" title="Swedish-speaking population of Finland">Swedish-Finnish</a> Lutheran priest<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a member of the Swedish <a href="Riksdag_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Riksdag of Sweden">Riksdag</a>, and is known as the leading <a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberal</a> of <a href="Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic</a> history.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He carried out his life's work in the <a href="Sweden" title="Sweden">Kingdom of Sweden</a>, advocating for free trade, freedom of speech, and social reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-liberalismen_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liberalismen-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-luoma_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luoma-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Born in <a href="Sotkamo" title="Sotkamo">Sotkamo</a>, <a href="Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> (<a href="Finland_under_Swedish_rule" title="Finland under Swedish rule">then part of Sweden</a>) and having studied under <a href="Pehr_Kalm" title="Pehr Kalm">Pehr Kalm</a> at the <a href="Royal_Academy_of_Turku" title="Royal Academy of Turku">Royal Academy of Åbo (Turku)</a>, Chydenius became a priest and <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosopher. He was elected as an ecclesiastic member of the Swedish <a href="Riksdag_of_the_Estates" title="Riksdag of the Estates">Riksdag of the Estates</a> in 1765–66, in which his <a href="Caps_(party)" title="Caps (party)">Cap party</a> seized the majority and government and championed Sweden's first <a href="Swedish_Freedom_of_the_Press_Act" title="Swedish Freedom of the Press Act">Freedom of the Press Act</a>, the most liberal in the world along with those of <a href="Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and the <a href="Seven_United_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven United Provinces">Seven United Provinces</a> (of the Netherlands). Vehemently opposed to the extreme interventionist policies of <a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> preached by the previously predominant <a href="Hats_(party)" title="Hats (party)">Hat party</a> for decades, he was ultimately coerced into retirement for his criticism of the Cap administration's radical deregulation policies and their social and political consequences.

</p><p>Following <a href="Gustav_III" title="Gustav III">Gustav III</a>'s coup d'état in 1772, which meant the end of parliamentary rule for another century, Chydenius briefly returned to prominence and worked to increase <a href="Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> and <a href="Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a> as part of Gustav's doctrine of <a href="Enlightened_despotism" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened despotism">enlightened despotism</a>, and contributed to the abolishment of <a href="Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> as means of interrogation, the limitation of <a href="Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>, and the legalisation of <a href="History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Jewish</a> and <a href="Roman_Catholicism_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in Sweden">Catholic</a> immigration into Sweden. Ultimately, the king's increasingly <a href="Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a> position brought Chydenius out of favour again, and he retired to private life in <a href="Ostrobothnia_(historical_province)" title="Ostrobothnia (historical province)">Ostrobothnia</a>, where he died at age 73.

</p><p>An early pioneer—also by international standards—and proponent of <a href="Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">economic liberalism</a>, <a href="Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>, <a href="Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and <a href="Free_migration" title="Free migration">migration</a> (writing a pamphlet on the <a href="Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a> a decade before the publication of <i><a href="The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i>) he was one of the first comprehensive philosophers of <a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3></div>

<p>Anders Chydenius was born in 1729 in <a href="Sotkamo" title="Sotkamo">Sotkamo</a>, <a href="Ostrobothnia_(historical_province)" title="Ostrobothnia (historical province)">Ostrobothnia</a> (now part of <a href="Kainuu" title="Kainuu">Kainuu</a> Region) where his father Jacob was a <a href="Chaplain" title="Chaplain">chaplain</a>. The family moved to <a href="Kuusamo" title="Kuusamo">Kuusamo</a> in 1734 where his father became a parish <a href="Rector_(ecclesiastical)#Protestant_churches" title="Rector (ecclesiastical)">rector</a>. Anders' childhood was spent in the barren area of northern <a href="Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>. He and his brother Samuel were taught privately by their father and then they went to Uleåborg (<a href="Oulu" title="Oulu">Oulu</a>) grammar school (<i>Uleåborg trivialskola</i>). After the <a href="Russo-Swedish_War_(1741%E2%80%931743)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)">Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)</a>, the boys studied privately in <a href="Tornio" title="Tornio">Tornio</a> and entered <a href="The_Royal_Academy_of_Turku" class="mw-redirect" title="The Royal Academy of Turku">The Royal Academy of Åbo</a> in 1745. They also studied at <a href="Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala University</a>. Anders studied <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, <a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. In 1746 the father Jacob and family moved to Gamlakarleby (<a href="Kokkola" title="Kokkola">Kokkola</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nedervetil">Nedervetil</h3></div>

<p>In 1753, after graduation, Anders was appointed preacher of the Chapel of the dependent parish of Nedervetil (today, part of <a href="Kronoby" title="Kronoby">Kronoby</a>) in <a href="Ostrobothnia_(historical_province)" title="Ostrobothnia (historical province)">Ostrobothnia</a>. He was married in 1755 to Beata Magdalena Mellberg, daughter of a merchant from <a href="Jakobstad" title="Jakobstad">Jakobstad</a>. The couple was childless.

While in Nedervetil he was active in many projects such as the clearing of the marshes, experimenting with new breeds of animals and plants, and adopting new methods of cultivation of <a href="Potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Potatoes">potatoes</a> and <a href="Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>. His aim was to enlighten the peasants by example. Chydenius practiced <a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and became known by inoculating ordinary people against <a href="Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>. He also performed <a href="Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a> operations and prepared medicines.<sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_1765–1766_Riksdag_of_the_Estates">The 1765–1766 Riksdag of the Estates</h3></div>

<p>Some of his first writings were about practical matters such as the moss overgrowing the meadows, and improvements in the design of horse carriages. Then he moved on to social questions and became known as a writer and speaker. He was sent to the <a href="Riksdag_of_the_Estates" title="Riksdag of the Estates">Diet</a> in 1765 to obtain free trading rights for the towns of <a href="Ostrobothnia_(historical_province)" title="Ostrobothnia (historical province)">Ostrobothnia</a>. The cities of Gamlakarleby, <a href="Vaasa" title="Vaasa">Vasa</a> (Vaasa), <a href="Pori" title="Pori">Björneborg</a> (Pori) and Uleåborg received navigational rights which helped with their later development as well as helping all of Ostrobothnia. At that time, the tar which should have brought prosperity to his town and the coast had to be sold abroad through <a href="Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, which made most of the profits. Largely due to Chydenius' efforts, Stockholm's monopoly was broken and from 1765, the towns gained freedom to sell and ship <a href="Tar" title="Tar">tar</a> directly to foreign customers.

</p><p>Chydenius participated actively in the Diet, and published several articles of criticism which caused a great stir. One of the results of his activities in the Diet was a stricter parliamentary control of the <a href="Government_budget" title="Government budget">government budget</a>. He considered that one of his greatest achievements was an extension of the <a href="Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>. His radical activities caused him to be excluded from the Diet by his own political party in 1766.<sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kokkola">Kokkola</h3></div>

<p>In 1770 he was appointed <a href="Rector_(ecclesiastical)#Protestant_churches" title="Rector (ecclesiastical)">rector</a> of <a href="Kokkola" title="Kokkola">Gamlakarleby</a> where he concentrated on parish work. He maintained his own orchestra, and rehearsed with them. They gave concerts in the rectory's reception hall. His father lived in the <a href="Clergy_house" title="Clergy house">parsonage</a> at Gamlakarleby from 1746 to 1766, and Anders lived there from 1770 to 1803.

</p><p>Between 1778 and 1779 Anders Chydenius once again participated in the Diet, at which the position of hired hands was brought up. He championed the rights of the servant class. At the suggestion of King <a href="Gustavus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustavus III">Gustavus III</a>, he introduced a bill whereby foreigners were also granted limited rights to practice their own religion. He participated in the Diet again in 1793 and was active as a writer covering the development of agriculture, the burning of <a href="Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">saltpeter</a>, <a href="Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, and the settlement of <a href="Laponia_(historical_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laponia (historical province)">Lapland</a>. One of his main tasks during his latter years was the supervision of building an extension to the old parish church. In 1796 he became a member of the Swedish society <a href="Pro_Fide_et_Christianismo" title="Pro Fide et Christianismo">Pro Fide et Christianismo</a>, founded to promote Christian education, along with his nephew <a href="Jakob_Tengstr%C3%B6m" title="Jakob Tengström">Jakob Tengström</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died in 1803.<sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideas">Ideas</h2></div>

<p>Chydenius focused his liberal writings on attacking the <a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, mercantilist conquest politics, <a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>, <a href="Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> and <a href="Privilege_(law)" title="Privilege (law)">privilege</a> that were prevalent at the time. In his view, state offices should not be for sale and the state should not impose any restrictions or privileges on any act. He criticised the <a href="Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, <a href="Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>, <a href="Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil servants</a> and other privileged people, saying that they lived off the work of peasants, seeking to turn the debate on the status of peasants into a debate on the status of the privileged. The prevailing view was that peasants and workers had to be kept poor to prevent them from idling. Chydenius showed that, on the contrary, workers were not idlers who should be forced to make the state rich, but vital individuals who, free to pursue their own happiness, would also benefit others.

</p><p>Chydenius was in favour of peace, demanded full and inviolable land ownership, wanted to give refugees protection and peasants and artisans the right to sell their products whenever and wherever they wanted. He opposed price and wage regulation and the labour strike, and demanded the right of workers to choose their employers. To save sparsely populated <a href="Lapland_(Finland)" title="Lapland (Finland)">Lapland</a>, he proposed turning it into a <a href="Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">night-watchman state</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_trade">Free trade</h3></div>

<p>In 1765 Chydenius published a <a href="Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">pamphlet</a> called <i><a href="The_National_Gain" title="The National Gain">The National Gain</a></i> (<i>Den nationnale winsten</i>), in which he proposes ideas of free trade and industry, explores the relationship between economy and society, and lays out the principles for <a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, <a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, and modern <a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-acton_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acton-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the book Chydenius published theories closely corresponding to <a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>, eleven years before Smith published his book, <i><a href="The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>.</i>

</p><p>Chydenius also put his theories into practice by proposing to the <a href="Riksdag_of_the_Estates" title="Riksdag of the Estates">Riksdag of the Estates</a> a drastic trade liberalization of towns along the <a href="Gulf_of_Bothnia" title="Gulf of Bothnia">Gulf of Bothnia</a>. However, most of his other propositions were not realized, such as turning <a href="Laponia_(historical_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laponia (historical province)">Lapland</a> to a <a href="Nightwatchman_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nightwatchman state">nightwatchman state</a> to make the poor province prosper economically:

</p>

<blockquote><p> – free state, private ownership and individual freedom. Inhabitants could choose whatever profession, freedom of trade would be complete, there would be no privileges, regulation or taxes. Bureaucracy would be nonexistent, and the only officer would be a judge who would oversee that no-one's rights would be suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-liberalismen_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liberalismen-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_expression">Freedom of expression</h3></div>

<p>Chydenius became a great proponent of <a href="Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>. In a report published in 1776, he wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-luoma_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luoma-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<blockquote><p>No evidence should be needed that a certain freedom of writing and printing is one of the strongest bulwarks of a free organisation of the state, as without it, the estates would not have sufficient information for the drafting of good laws, and those dispensing justice would not be monitored, nor would the subjects know the requirements of the law, the limits of the rights of government, and their own responsibilities. Education and good conduct would be crushed; coarseness in thought, speech, and manners would prevail, and dimness would darken the entire sky of our freedom in a few years.</p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_equality">Natural equality</h3></div>

<p>Chydenius was outspoken about universal rights and the abolition of privilege. He wanted to give the poor the same freedom as for everybody else and argued for the good of the poor, which was then rather exceptional among politicians. He promoted democracy and defended the freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of trade and industry, and the workers rights. He called for an oversight of the way the state funds were spent. In modern language we would say he advocated openness and good governance.

</p><p>In a 1778 essay, <i>Thoughts Upon the Natural Rights of Servants and Peasants</i>, he wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<blockquote><p>Nature shapes them exactly like us. Their posture in the crib is the same as ours, their souls have the same reason as other peoples', whereby it is plain to see that the Lord of creation also had intended them to have equal rights with other people.

</p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div>

<p>Chydenius can be seen as a major influence on Nordic thinkers as well as real-life politics, strictly promoting <a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a>. He has been labeled the father of Swedish liberalism.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Sweden and Finland include him among their historical notables, and he is variably categorized either Swedish or Finnish by nationality.

</p><p>Anders Chydenius is remembered as a man ahead of his time, expressing ideas that were radical in his day, but are now the backbone of the <a href="Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic ideology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-acton_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acton-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He can also be seen as an <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinker, an advocate of science, arts, rational thinking and freedom. He was also a scientist and skilled eye-surgeon, the maker of several inventions, a pioneer of vaccination in Finland and the founder of an orchestra.

</p><p>Chydenius was featured on the highest valued bank note (1000 marks) of the <a href="Finnish_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish mark">Finnish mark's</a> last design series.<sup id="cite_ref-pelo_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also many place names referring to Chydenius in <a href="Kokkola" title="Kokkola">Kokkola</a>, such as the <a href="Chydenia_Shopping_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Chydenia Shopping Center">Chydenia Shopping Center</a>, which was completed in the town center in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Anders Chydenius was selected as the main motif in a recent Finnish commemorative coin, the €10 <a href="Euro_gold_and_silver_commemorative_coins_(Finland)#2003_coinage" title="Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Finland)">Anders Chydenius commemorative coin</a>, minted in 2003. The obverse features an open book, referring to Chydenius's numerous publications and the Bible. On the reverse, a traditional village with a church and other buildings can be seen.

</p><p>In the book <i><a href="Historiens_100_viktigaste_svenskar" title="Historiens 100 viktigaste svenskar">Historiens 100 viktigaste svenskar</a></i> ("100 Most Important Swedes in History"), written by Niklas Ekdal and Petter Karlsson, Chydenius was ranked as the seventeenth most important Swede in history.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Finland, Chydenius was ranked on the place #40 in the list of "Greatest Finns" in a voting contest organised by the national broadcasting company.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Chydenius family is even today a well known cultural family in Finland. Composer <a href="Kaj_Chydenius" title="Kaj Chydenius">Kaj Chydenius</a> is Anders's distant relative.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2></div>

<ul><li><i>Americanska näfwerbåtar</i>. Åbo 1753. (American Bark Boats.)</li>

<li><i>Svar På samma Fråga (Om bästa sättet at upodla Mosslupna Ängar)</i>. Stockholm 1762. (How to Cultivate Mossy Meadows.)</li>

<li><i>Svar på samma Fråga (Angående Kärrors Förbättring)</i>. Stockholm 1764. (The Improvement of Waggons.)</li>

<li><i>Wederläggning Af de Skäl, Hwarmed man söker bestrida Öster- och Wästerbottniska Samt Wäster-Norrländske Städerne Fri Seglation</i>. Stockholm 1765. (Counter-arguments to Those Who Would Attempt to Oppose Free Navigation between the Towns of Ostrobothnia, Västerbotten and Norland.)</li>

<li><i>Swar På den af Kgl. Wetenskaps Academien förestälta Frågan: Hwad kan wara orsaken, at sådan myckenhet Swenskt folk årligen flytter utur Landet?</i> Stockholm 1765. (For What Reason do so Many Swedes Emigrate Every Year?)</li>

<li><i>Källan Til Rikets Wan-Magt</i>. Stockholm 1765. (The Source of the Weakness of the Kingdom.)</li>

<li><i>Den Nationnale Winsten. Wördsamast öfwerlemnad Til Riksens Höglofliga Ständer, Af En Deras Ledamot</i>. Stockholm 1765. (<a href="The_National_Gain" title="The National Gain">The National Gain</a>.)</li>

<li><i>Omständeligt Swar, På den genom Trycket utkomne Wederläggning af Skriften, Kallad: Källan til Rikets Wanmagt, Jämte Anmärkningar Öfwer De wid samma Källa anstälda Wattu-Prof</i>. Stockholm 1765. (In Reply to Critiques Applying to The Source of the Weakness of the Kingdom.)</li>

<li><i>Berättelse Om Chinesiska Skrif-Friheten, Öfversatt af Danskan</i>. Stockholm 1766. (A Report on the Freedom of the Press in China.)</li>

<li><i>Rikets Hjelp, Genom en Naturlig Finance-System</i>. Stockholm 1766. (Assisting the Kingdom through a Natural Monetary System.)</li>

<li><i>Tal Hållet Vid Vår Allernådigste Konungs, Konung Gustaf III:s Höga Kröning, Den 29 Maji 1772</i>. Stockholm 1772. (Speech on the Occasion of the Coronation of Gustavus III.)</li>

<li><i>Svar På Vetenskaps och Vitterhets Samhällets I Götheborg Förestälta Fråga: Huruvida Landthandel för ett Rike i gemen är nyttig eller skadelig, och hvad mon den bidrager til industriens uplifvande eller aftagande?</i> Stockholm 1777. (Is Rural Trade Advantageous or Disadvantageous to the Kingdom, and to What Extent does it Affect the Progress or Decline in Means of Livelihood?)</li>

<li><i>Tankar Om Husbönders och Tienstehions Naturliga Rätt</i>. Stockholm 1778. (Thoughts upon the Natural Rights of Servants and Peasants.)</li>

<li><i>Memorial, Angående Religions-Frihet</i>. Stockholm 1779. (Memorandum on the Freedom of Religious Faith.)</li>

<li><i>Predikningar öfver Tio Guds Bud</i>. Upsala 1781–82. (Sermons on the Ten Commandments.)</li>

<li><i>Predikningar öfver Andra Hufvudstycket i Catechesen. Homiletiska försök. Vol. VI. St. 2</i>. Stockholm 1784. (Sermons on the Second Main Part of the Catechism.)</li>

<li><i>Om Saltpetter-Sjuderierna, särledes i Österbotten. Skrifter af Sällskapet för Allmänne Medborgerlige kunskaper II</i>. Stockholm 1795. (Preparation of Saltpetre.)</li>

<li><i>Tankar om Koppympningen För Finlands Allmoge. K. Finska Hushållnings-Sällskapets Handlingar 1</i>. Åbo 1803. (Thoughts on Inoculating against Smallpox for the Finnish People.)<sup id="cite_ref-pertti_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pertti-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Contributions_to_liberal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Contributions to liberal theory">Contributions to liberal theory</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History of economic thought</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kansallisbiografia.fi/english/person/2432">"Etusivu"</a>. <i>kansallisbiografia.fi</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blf.fi/artikel.php?id=2432">"Anders Chydenius"</a>. <i><a href="Biografiskt_lexikon_f%C3%B6r_Finland" title="Biografiskt lexikon för Finland">Biografiskt lexikon för Finland</a></i> (in Swedish). Helsingfors: <a href="Svenska_litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet_i_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland">Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland</a>. <a href="Uniform_Resource_Name" title="Uniform Resource Name">urn</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:sls-4505-1416928957111">NBN:fi:sls-4505-1416928957111</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-liberalismen-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-liberalismen_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-liberalismen_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNorberg" class="citation web cs1">Norberg, Johan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080430014109/http://www.liberalismen.com/chydenius.shtml">"Liberalismen.com: Anders Chydenius – den svenska liberalismens fader"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liberalismen.com/chydenius.shtml">the original</a> on 2008-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-17</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-luoma-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-luoma_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-luoma_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLuoma" class="citation web cs1">Luoma, Jukka. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071120112003/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/Self-censorship+has+always+encouraged+censorship/1135218861212">"Helsingin Sanomat – International Edition"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hs.fi/english/article/Self-censorship+has+always+encouraged+censorship/1135218861212">the original</a> on 2007-11-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pelo-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pelo_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPelo" class="citation web cs1">Pelo, June. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sydaby.eget.net/swe/jp_chydenius.htm">"Anders Chydenius"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071030084557/http://sydaby.eget.net/swe/jp_chydenius.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/5885744/The-World-s-First-Freedom-of-Information-Act-Sweden-Finland-1766">"The World's First Freedom of Information Act (Sweden/Finland 1766) | Age Of Enlightenment | Sweden"</a>. <i>Scribd</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210309000327/https://www.scribd.com/document/5885744/The-World-s-First-Freedom-of-Information-Act-Sweden-Finland-1766">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-25</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freedominfo.org/regions/europe/sweden/">"freedominfo.org, "Sweden""</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190406212230/http://www.freedominfo.org/regions/europe/sweden/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johan Norberg, <i>Den Svenska Liberalismens Historia</i>, pp. 30–43</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJonassonHyttinen1796" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jonasson, Maren; Hyttinen, Pertti (23 December 1796). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chydenius.kootutteokset.fi/sv/brev-till-pro-fide-et-christianismo-1796/">"Kommentar till Brev till Pro Fide et Christianismo 1796"</a>. <i>Chydenius</i> (in Swedish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-acton-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-acton_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-acton_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080404130818/http://www.acton.org/publications/randl/rl_liberal_en_563.php">"Acton Institute: Anders Chydenius (1729–1803)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acton.org/publications/randl/rl_liberal_en_563.php">the original</a> on 2008-04-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlasnetwork.org/news/article/the-story-of-sweden-is-about-markets-not-socialism">The Story of Sweden is About Markets, Not Socialism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427223050/https://www.atlasnetwork.org/news/article/the-story-of-sweden-is-about-markets-not-socialism">Archived</a> 2021-04-27 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Atlas Network, September 17, 2018</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.keskipohjanmaa.fi/uutinen/626120">Kokkolan vahva vaikuttaja Anders Chydenius oli aikaansa edellä myös rokotusasiassa: Olisiko hänen terveysvalistusperintö elvytettävä uudelleen?</a> – <i><a href="Keskipohjanmaa" title="Keskipohjanmaa">Keskipohjanmaa</a></i> (in Finnish)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEkdalKarlsson2009" class="citation book cs1">Ekdal, Niklas & Karlsson, Petter (2009). <i>Historiens 100 viktigaste svenskar</i>. <a href="Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>: Forum. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-91-37-13402-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pertti-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pertti_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHyttinen" class="citation web cs1">Hyttinen, Pertti. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runeberg.org/authors/chyden.html">"Chydenius, Anders (Nordic Authors)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170207211757/http://runeberg.org/authors/chyden.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-02-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li>Anders Chydenius: Anticipating The Wealth of Nations: The Selected Works of Anders Chydenius (1729–1803). Translated from the original by Peter C. Hogg. London: Routledge, 2012. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-55133-5</bdi>. Editors Maren Jonasson and Pertti Hyttinen.</li>

<li>Hyttinen, Pertti. <i>Anders Chydenius Defender of Freedom and Democracy</i>. Kokkola: Chydenius Institute of the University of Jyväskylä, 1994. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>951-34-0322-X</bdi></li>

<li>Mustonen, Juha. <i>The World's First Freedom of Information Act Anders Chydenius' Legacy Today</i>. Anders Chydenius Foundation publications, 2. Kokkola: Anders Chydenius Foundation, 2006. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>952-99519-2-2</bdi></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGeorg_Schauman1908" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Georg_Schauman" title="Georg Schauman">Georg Schauman</a> (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/urn:NBN:fi-fd2019-00022130"><i>Biografiska undersökningar om Anders Chydenius jämte otryckta skrifter af Chydenius / Georg Schauman.</i></a>, <a href="Skrifter_utgivna_av_Svenska_litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet_i_Finland" title="Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland">Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland</a> (in Swedish), Helsinki: <a href="Society_of_Swedish_Literature_in_Finland" title="Society of Swedish Literature in Finland">Society of Swedish Literature in Finland</a>, <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-6842">0039-6842</a>, <a href="WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113396157" class="extiw external" title="d:Q113396157">Q113396157</a></cite></li>

<li>Uhr, Carl G. <i>Anders Chydenius 1729–1803 A Finnish Predecessor to Adam Smith</i>. Meddelanden från Nationalekonomiska institutionen vid Handelshögskolan vid Åbo akademi, 6. Åbo: Nationalekonomiska institutionen vid Handelshögskolan vid Åbo akademi, 1963.</li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Anders_Chydenius" class="extiw external" title="commons:Anders Chydenius"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Anders Chydenius</span></a>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anders_Chydenius" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Anders Chydenius">Anders Chydenius</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040606104022/http://www.chydenius.net/eng/index.asp">Chydenius Foundation</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051201120203/http://www.chydenius.net/historia/teokset/e_kansallinen_johdanto.asp">The National Gain</a> Chydenius' most famous book in English translation</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNorberg2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Johan_Norberg" title="Johan Norberg">Norberg, Johan</a> (October 25, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/how-laissez-faire-made-sweden-rich#.j44yijr:XePw">"How Laissez-Faire Made Sweden Rich"</a>. <i>Libertarianism.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-14</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLiton2016" class="citation web cs1">Liton, Shakhawat (May 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/models-press-freedom-1218028">"Models of press freedom"</a>. <i>The Daily Star</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></li>

<li>Anders Chydenius <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.panarchy.org/chydenius/nationalgain.html">The National Gain</a> (1765)</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Classical_economists44" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economists</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Bernard Mandeville</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Place" title="Francis Place">Francis Place</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Thornton_(reformer)" title="Henry Thornton (reformer)">Henry Thornton</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Ramsay_McCulloch" title="John Ramsay McCulloch">John Ramsay McCulloch</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Maitland%2C_8th_Earl_of_Lauderdale" title="James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale">James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi" title="Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi">Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">Johann Heinrich von Thünen</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>

<li><a href="Nassau_William_Senior" title="Nassau William Senior">Nassau William Senior</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Gibbon_Wakefield" title="Edward Gibbon Wakefield">Edward Gibbon Wakefield</a></li>

<li><a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Tooke" title="Thomas Tooke">Thomas Tooke</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Torrens_(economist)" title="Robert Torrens (economist)">Robert Torrens</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Liberalism198" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liberalism198" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li>

<li><a href="Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li>

<li><a href="Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li>

<li><a href="Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li>

<li><a href="Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li>

<li><a href="Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li>

<li><a href="Property" title="Property">Property</a>

<ul><li><a href="Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a>

<ul><li><a href="Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li>

<li><a href="Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">Minority</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li>

<li><a href="Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li>

<li><a href="Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li>

<li><a href="Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li>

<li><a href="Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clerical</a></li>

<li><a href="Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republican</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocratic</a></li>

<li><a href="Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopaedist</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a></li>

<li><a href="National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Constitutional_liberalism" title="Constitutional liberalism">Constitutional</a>

<ul><li><a href="Constitutional_patriotism" title="Constitutional patriotism">Constitutional patriotism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_corporatism" title="Liberal corporatism">Corporate</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">International</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Geolibertarianism" title="Geolibertarianism">Geolibertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a>

<ul><li><a href="Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li>

<li><a href="Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chinilpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinilpa">Anti-<i>Chinilpa</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Centrist_reformism" title="Centrist reformism">Centrist reformist</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">Progressive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_Party_(Philippines)" title="Liberal Party (Philippines)">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_the_Czech_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in the Czech lands">Czech lands</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a>

<ul><li><a href="Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Switzerland" title="Liberalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li>

<li><a href="Radicals_(UK)" title="Radicals (UK)">Radical</a></li>

<li><a href="Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggist</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America and<br>the Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a>

<ul><li><a href="Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressive</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Moderates_(Liberal_Party_of_Australia)" title="Moderates (Liberal Party of Australia)">Small-l</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>

<li><a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li>

<li><a href="Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li>

<li><a href="Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li>

<li><a href="Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li>

<li><a href="Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li>

<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li>

<li><a href="F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li>

<li><a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li>

<li><a href="Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dalberg-Acton%2C_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>

<li><a href="Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li>

<li><a href="R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li>

<li><a href="Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li>

<li><a href="Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li>

<li><a href="Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<li><a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li>

<li><a href="Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li>

<li><a href="Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li>

<li><a href="Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li>

<li><a href="Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li>

<li><a href="Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li>

<li><a href="Camillo_Benso%2C_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li>

<li><a href="Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li>

<li><a href="Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li>

<li><a href="Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li>

<li><a href="Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li>

<li><a href="Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li>

<li><a href="Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li>

<li><a href="Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li>

<li><a href="John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li>

<li><a href="Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li>

<li><a href="Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li>

<li><a href="Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li>

<li>Liberal parties</li>

<li><a href="Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Renew_Europe" title="Renew Europe">Renew Europe</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Abortion_debate" title="Abortion debate">Abortion debate</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abortion-rights_movement" title="Abortion-rights movement">Pro-Choice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_autocracy" title="Liberal autocracy">Liberal autocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Feminist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Internationalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a>

<li><a href="Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<li><a href="Portal%3ALiberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism Portal</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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